<text>199. Energy is in short supply on Earth. But in the next century, lunar resources promise to play a role in energy used by Earth. In fact, energy is a product that may be profitably brought back from the Moon through the return to Earth of a light isotope of helium, He-3. Though still in the research stage, use of He-3 promises to be much cleaner than current, fission-based plants which consume uranium as a fuel. Why should we go to the moon for this material? (1) It is nearly absent from Earth as a natural resource. (2) Millions of kilograms of it are present in lunar soil, albeit at very low concentrations. (3) It may be the fuel for the next generation of electric power plants, providing nearly pollution-free power. (4) It may, in the 21st century, replace our fossil fuels. (5) It may be worth $2,000,000/kg.-USING SPACE RESOURCES,JSC, P. 10.</text>
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<text>198. (continued) While ordinary house paint has very little effect on energy savings, the ceramic-filled paint has unique energy-saving and sound-blocking properties... That's only a single and, relatively recent, example of how space research has been turned to earthly advantage to create new products and new jobs. ...In addition to the value derived from space exploration, we would be hard-pressed to find another technological driver comparable to the U.S. space program. That's why it's too bad ordinary people can't vote on these things. Given a choice...I'm betting the space station would win handily. Kate Thomas, HOUSTON POST, Friday, May 31, 1991, B-1.</text>
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<text>198. Critics say the (space station) program is too expensive, too risky and charge NASA with underestimating the space station's real cost. More earthly problems demand attention, they claim, and there's not enough money to go around. Maybe we're not setting the right priorities. Besides directly creating high paying jobs that increase demand for housing and other goods and services, the space program creates other indirect benefits, too. We actually get a demonstrable return on our investment. Research done for the space program drives technological break- throughs in this country. Many of these developments have commercial applications that wouldn't have occurred otherwise. Only last Sunday, a Houston Post syndicated columnist touted a new paint's insulating propertiesΓÇömade from the same material that is used on the heat shield tiles for NASA's space shuttles. (continued)</text>
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<text>196. (continued) hardware, 20 Shuttle trips and 40 Titan 4 vehicles. Cost of this proposal is estimated at $92 to $150 billion dollars. Mark stated a return to the Moon and trip to Mars "has to be put on a scale that's politically interesting. "Mission Control," AD ASTRA,June 1991 p. 5.197. Population pressure may push us into the cosmos. Consider the present rate of population expansion (1991). According to Nafis Sadik, director of the UN Population Fund, 100 million people will be added each year of the 1990s to the Earth's human numbers (about the population of Eastern Europe added each year) so that in the decade of the 90s, a whole China's worth of people will be added to our Earth's eco-systems. At present growth rates, India will overtake China as the most populous country on Earth by the turn of the century. FUTURIST MAGAZINE, March/April, 1991, World Future Society.</text>
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<text>195. Today (May 1991) the Space Station Freedom Program employs approximately 30,000 people directly and over 75,000 people indirectly in the United States. It is a facility that is being built by men and women in California, Ohio, Texas, Alabama, Colorado, Connecticut, New Jersey and 15 other states. Space Station jobs employ the nation's engineers, scientists and techniciansΓÇöthe backbone of our future markets and our future competitiveness postureΓÇöand create other jobs throughout the economy. Richard H. Truly, Administrator of NASA in an editorial in the June 1991 issue of AD ASTRA, p. 3.196. Hans Mark proposes a plan to put men on the Moon and Mars, returning men to the Moon in 1995 and putting men on Mars in 2003. His plan calls for only a Mars Observer precursor mission, already existing ion propulsion for cargo ships, Apollo and Shuttle era (continued)</text>
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<text>193. Would a robot have sufficed to 'discover' the New World in Columbus' stead? I doubt it. Would the Apollo moon landings have captivated our planet if they had been carried out by beeping, whiring robots rather than living, breathing human beings? Not likely. Ibid. 194. The Advisory Committe on the Future of the U.S. space program concluded, "There is a difference between Hillary reaching the top of Everest and merely using a rocket to loft an instrument package to the summit. There is a difference between the now largely forgotten Soviet robotic Moon explorer that itself returned lunar samples, and the exploits of astronauts Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Mike Collins. Ibid.</text>
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<text>192. Not once, not twice, but many times in the shuttle program, we have overcome adversity with the gloved hand of an astronaut. In 1984, we repaired the Solar Maximum Mission observatory. In 1985, we retriev- ed and returned to Earth not one but two communications satellites in history's first space salvage operation. That same year, we fixed another satellite in space and sent it off to do its job. ...if astronauts hadn't been there, to step in with the adaptability and unique reasoning ability of humans, the mission would have fallen far short of the many objectives it ultimately achieved. Again, experience tells us that our efforts in space must evolve around people and robots working together in an enlightened balance of capabilities on the high frontier, that make up those two aspects of U.S. space exploration. (Aaron Cohen, Director of the Johnson Space Center, Special article to the Houston Post, May 19, 1991.)</text>
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<text>190. Why did the hard-headed American government grant NASA such a huge budget for a project (Men on the Moon) with not much chanceΓÇöit seemed initiallyΓÇöof a practical payoff? Surely the attempt to regain international prestige is not the whole story; many of the senators and congressmen who voted money for the conquest of the Moon must have shared, in a sense, a childhood dream: the reaching of the Moon was the central, passionate symbol of the science fiction they had grown up with. Peter Nicholls, THE SCIENCE IN SCIENCE FICTION, Crescent Books, New York, New York, 1987, p. 6.191. A stuck antenna on NASA's Gamma Ray Observatory meant a $600 million dollar loss. Yet, a single tug by a space shuttle astronaut which required a 20 minute walk in space (less time than it takes...to fix a flat) resulted in a $600 million savings and untold knowledge of the universe, thanks to people present in space. Aaron Cohen JSC. ledge of the universe, thanks to people present in space. (Aaron Cohen)JSC.</text>
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<text>188. Space development is important to U.S. trade. While the U.S. trade balance deficit approached $130 billion last year (1989), the U.S. aerospace industry once again was the leading manufacturing exporter, and the only high technology segment generating a surplus, approxi- mately $17 billion. Space systems ranked second among aerospace product categories, with civil space sales gaining on military. Ibid., p.40.189. NASA FY90 procurements of $11.3 billion alone have an economic multiplier of 2:1 and create, directly or indirectly, nearly 240,000 private sector jobs, $23.2 billion in industry sales and generate $7.4 billion tax revenues. These benefits are widely dispersed nationwide, including states and industries not normally linked to space such as steel manufacturing, electric lighting and wiring, rubber and plastics. Ibid., p.40.</text>
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<text>186. Academia and the private sector are seeing and seeking opportuni- ties in space, including disciplines normally not considered space- related, such as architecture, mining, manufacturing and civil engineering. Leveraging this interest can provide a strong base for increased space research and technology development. Ibid., p. 40.187. Barriers to participation of academia and the private sector in space endeavors must be minimized. Programs such as the Small Business Innovation Research Program (SBIR), Industry Research and Development (IR&D), Centers for Commercial Development of Space, and Space Grant Consortiums fund state-of-the-art research from a wide range of academic and industrial segments. Ibid., p. 40.</text>
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<text>184. The U.S. and Soviet Union are no longer the only spacefaring nations. This creates opportunities for both cooperation as well as competition. International cooperation expands the knowledge base about space, promotes the peaceful use of space, and can significantly lower large-scale project costs. Ibid., p. 40.185. Since the mid-1980s, both Japan and Germany have spent more on research and development (R&D) as a percentage of gross national product than the U.S. Japan plans to invest 10% of its Federal outlays on space development worldwide in the coming years. The NASA share of Federal R&D outlays was less than10% in FY90 and real growth rate in NASA R&D outlays has fallen 16% since 1980. Ibid., p.40.</text>
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<text>183. Public interest in space, especially among persons age 35 or younger, is growing. A 1990 national opinion survey conducted for Rockwell International showed that 80% of Americans approve of the U.S. space program, up from a year ago. Reasons cited most often for support were technological and medical advances derived from space and ecological information obtained. The Space Exploration Initiative was supported by 69% of respondents, and 85% believed the U.S. should be a leader in space technology development. The public needs to be kept informed of space benefits, and support for space communicated to its leaders. Ibid., p. 39.</text>
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<text>182. Many of us were children when Alan Shepard took our first manned flight 30 years ago, and many of us will not be around when the first human (who is in kindergarten today) steps on the surface of Mars 30 years from now. Yet, the dedication, commitment and energy of each of us will make it possible. This is the true spirit of the space program, a collective dream of generations all working together for a common human destiny. Those first footsteps on Mars are the steps we take today. Audrey Schwartz, "JSC Planning Guide," New Initiatives Office, JSC, November, 1990, p. 39.</text>
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<text>181. Not only is NASA subject to the whims of congressional funding, consider the B-1B Airforce program to build the next generation of supersonic bombers to replace the fleet of aging B-52's. The B-1 prototype first flew in 1974, but the program was cancelled in 1977. In 1981 the B-1 was resurrected resulting in 100 of the craft being built at a cost of $250 million dollars each. The Rockwell B-1B entered operational service in 1985. The cost of the program, program length, and difficulty in maintaining congressional funding are very similar to space program experiences such as the Shuttle and the Space Station. J. R. Woodfill, August 14, 1991. </text>
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<text>180. In January of 1989 the Soviet Academy of Soviet Sciences announced a plan to land Russian cosmonauts on Mars between 2005 and 2010 using two nuclear-electric powered spaceships. The huge Soviet Energiya launch vehicles would launch eight times. The Earth orbiting assembly would be propelled to Mars by 80-tonne nuclear- electric engines. Included would be10-tonne crew compartments separated from the nuclear engines by 328 ft. The plan descends two cosmonauts to Mars orbit in a 60-tonne lander which includes a rover. The men return Apollo style in an ascent stage, docking with the orbiting crew compartment for a return to Earth. Kenneth Gatland, FACT FINDER SPACE DIARY, Crescent Books, New York, New York, 1989, p. 62.</text>
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<text>179. (continued) (5) If more students, in elementary school, are not encouraged to seek and prepare academically for science and engineering careers today, there will be a critical lack of talent to meet national goals in space and elsewhere. (6) In addition, more qualified teachers are needed in both secondary and college positions; however, there are problems in competing with industry for talent. This means positions go unfilled, or to less qualified people. Audrey Schwartz, New Initiatives Office, JSC, 1989. </text>
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<text>179. (continued) Long Term Significance: (1) Demographically, the number of college age students will continue to decrease through 1996 for a total drop of 25% through 2005. (2) With decreasing numbers of college age persons and a declining percentage of students choosing technical degrees a shortfall of more than 500,000 scientists and engineers is estimated by the year 2010. (3) In addition, in the 1990s, NASA will be losing its most experienced engineers recruited after Sputnik. NASA will have to compete with corporations for more limited numbers of technical people during what is to be a critical time in the manned space program. (4) It takes at least 10 years for the average 1990 high school freshman interested in science or engineering to complete an undergraduate and a master's degree, and perhaps another 3 to 5 years to complete a PhD. (continued on next card)</text>
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<text>179. Current Situation/Education: (1) American students are taking fewer science and math courses in high school and especially compared to counterparts in other industrialized countries. (2) Freshman college enrollment in science and engineering dropped 14% by 1986. (3) Currently 1300 authorized positions for engineering college faculty in U.S. universities remain vacant. (4) Foreign students comprise 40% of total enrollments in U.S. graduate schools of engineering and more than 50% of all U.S .engineering PhDs go to foreigners. (5) Interestingly, this drop in U.S. science and engineering PhDs coincides with the annual NASA budget drop with a 3-4 year lag...about the time it takes to graduate from a high school or undergraduate college. This is similar to the time of Sputnik. (continued on next card) </text>
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<text>178. (continued) for a space station and a fully reusable space shuttle. Billions of dollars have been saved by squeezing the life out of the space program for two decades. Has a single cent saved from the space program been used to feed the hungry of the world? Rather, hasn't the effect been a dampening of spirit of the United States, endangering its leading role in technology, weakening its ability to effectively assist poorer nations? A healthy, strong nation has to be active in all worthwhile areasΓÇö including the fight against hunger and a vigorous space program. Waiting until all problems on Earth have been solved before we go to Mars is a naive and unrealistic proposal which only leads to stagnation and doesn't help solve anything. Johannes Koch, Hong Kong, China.</text>
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<text>177. (continued) Rather than advancing the stragglers by holding back the leaders, our brightest hope is in the advance of the vanguard of ability and knowledge. One can see the direction we ought to go simply by juxtaposing his letter and the article on the very next page after it, on The Planetary Society's participation in Earth Day celebrations. W. Van Snyder, "Members' Dialogue," THE PLANETARY REPORT, Vol. X, No. 4, La Crescenta, California, July/August 1990, p. 3.178. Some people seem to have forgotten (or have never heard) that the first human expedition to Mars has already been postponed for about 30 years! NASA originally proposed a lunar base for 1979, a human landing on Mars before 1985 and a semipermanent Mars base before 1990! All of this was scrapped, including plans (Continued)</text>
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<text>177. (continued) to their solutions. Their solutions are not in throwing more money or talent at them, but in attacking them properly. Second, he apparently assumes that space exploration is simply frivolous self-gratification. Much of what we have gained from space exploration, such as improved weather forecasting, global cummunica- tion, life-support systems and the lessons of comparative planetology, have already had a direct impact on worldly problems of hunger, education, water quality and disaster preparation. Carrying his reasoning to its logical conclusion, we should not hold the Olympic Games again until we've found cures for all forms of paralysis or debilitation, or grant college degrees until we have cures for all forms of mental retardation. (continued on next card) </text>
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<text>176. The space pioneer is driven by the same irresistible urge that sent Columbus across uncharted seas and frontiersmen to distant mountain peaks, an unrelenting desire to know what lies beyond. Science has a good idea of what is 'out there,' but the final proof is left to the astronaut. Hurling along at thousands of miles an hour, the spaceman lives in a lonely and forboding vacuum, at once frightening and yet beautiful, beyond earthbound understanding. Ibid.177. (In response to a letter which recommends taking care of the basic needs of everyone on Earth before attempting a Mars mission.) He makes two seriously wrong assumptions: first, that the problems he describes would be ameliorated or solved more quickly if the resources spent on space exploration were diverted (continued on the next card)</text>
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<text>174. (Continued) And so I am pleased to announce a new Age of Exploration, with not only a goal but also a timetable: I believe that before Apollo celebrates the 50th anniversary of its landing on the MoonΓÇöthe American flag should be planted on Mars. Ibid.175. A few cautious steps into outer space and mankind is launched on his greatest adventure. An awesome ocean to cross in an effort to find out more about himself; a prairie hostile and uncaring for him or his kind. Still, man will press his search for knowledge, making an adjustment where necessary in order to survive, and eventually, to conquer. LeRoi Smith, Ed., "We Came in Peace," Classic Press, Inc., San Rafael, California, September 1969, p.8.</text>
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<text>172. (continued) American Rockies and the Pacific coast. Excerpts of speech given by President George Bush at Texas A&I University, May 11, 1990.173. Our Nation's quest for the unknown took American pioneers from the bluffs of the Mississippi to the mountains of the Moon. Ibid.174. But leadership in space takes more than just dollars. It also takes a decision. And I'm announcing it today. We stand at the halfway point in our exploration of the immediate solar systemΓÇöthe planet Earth, its moon, and the terrestrial neighborhood. Thirty years ago, NASA was founded and the space race began. And 30 years from now I believe Man will stand on another planet. (continued on next card)</text>
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<text>171. The President said American school children reading about Columbus' doubters have shook their heads in disbelief that these naysayers could have been so shortsighted. "We must not let the children of the future shake their heads at our behavior," he said. "History tells us what happens to nations that forget how to dream. The American people want us in space." HOUSTON POST, June 21, 1990, A-10.172. Throughout our history, America has been a nation of discoverers. It is part of our national characterΓÇöpart of our democratic heritage. Despite Thomas Jefferson's love of machinesΓÇöit's hard to imagine his sending a robot out alone to describe the wonders of the (continued on next card)</text>
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<text>170. Some say the space program should wait, that we should only go forward once social problems of today are completely solved. But history proves that attitude is self-defeating. Had Columbus waited until all the problems of his time were solved, the timbers of the Santa Maria would be rotting on the Spanish coast to this day. President Bush in a speech given June 20, 1990.</text>
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<text>168. The space station demands construction materials and assembly techniques that would turn even the most adept earthbound architect's hair snow white in anticipation. Ibid., p. 38.169. One author described Space Station Freedom as "half a million pounds of gleaming graphite epoxy struts and beams, strung together in a 'transverse boom' 508 feet long. Clinging crosswise to its midsection are four cylindrical modulesΓÇörooms for living and working in space. Along its bridgework rest instruments for studying the Earth and the stars. At each end hang four solar panels which provide the station with its electrical power and give it the look of a giant insect not quite properly equipped for flight..." Ibid., p. 38.</text>
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<text>167. A NASA study matched 124 National Aerospace Plane technologies to Department of Commerce industrial classifications and found there were 10,000 possible applications. "Inside Space," SPACE NEWS, Vol. 1, No. 7, February 26th-March 4th, 1990, Times Journal Co., Springfied, VA, p. 20.169. Whatever the controversies in these days of unrelenting social problems and Gramm-Rudman budget slashing, the international Space Station Freedom is arguably the most dreamed about, most discussed and most difficult piece of engineering since the Chinese pooled the toil of millions to construct the Great Wall. Chip Walter, FINAL FRONTIER, AN ORBITING CONSTUCTION SITE, Final Frontier Publishing Company, Minneapolis, MN, March/April 1990, p. 38.</text>
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<text>166. Today it's more important than ever to extend a hand to the next generation. During the lifetimes of these children, interplanetary travel will become a reality - they'll hear a human voice speak from Mars. They'll live in a global economy and know the intense competition certain to go with it. To help our kids succeed, America must increase its rate of discovery and invention. That's what Space Station Freedom is all about. It will be a scientific laboratory on the edge of space, a way station to permanent lunar settlements, a staging base for an expediton to Mars. We believe America must lead in space research and exploration. It's important to the nation now, and vital to the next generation. Boeing Advertisement in THE CITIZEN, February 28, 1990.</text>
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<text>165. Funding for the space program is not immune to inflation. In fact, it, along with medical treatment suffers more greatly from inflation than other fields. Yet, inflation, in a sense is a fact of life. Like death and taxes, it seems ever present. RIPLEY'S BELIEVE IT OR NOT once cited as an item the fact that "a bridge built by Charles Collins, of Collinsville, N.Y. in 1878 as an exact duplicate of a bridge in Scotland, cost him $10,000 - yet the original structure was built in 1728 for $600."* The fact that Ripley saw such cost growth sensational shows how most fail to see inflation's impact over time. Ripley's example is actually a very modest inflation rate, growth of 16.7 times in 150 years. At our current level of 5% per year, Mr. Collins' bridge cost would not be a marvel. In less than 114 years it would have exceeded the cost of $10,000. So a $100 billion dollar Mars program today is much less than the $25 billion cost to land on the Moon 20 years ago. *(19th Edition., p.44.)</text>
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<text>164. (continued) But what of rocket propulsion? Some would say that rockets going beyond the Earth's atmosphere are opposing nature, the natural means of propulsion. Yet, even our Langley Research Center rocket engineers have not equalled the Flying Cuttlefish. The little creature, as described in RIPLEY's BELIEVE IT OR NOT, flies out of the water by jet propulsionΓÇöit discharges a jet of water with such force that it flies a distance of 35 feet, 15 feet in the air, at a speed of about 20 nautical miles an hour. Indeed man's quest to explore the planets is not new to nature. The Flying Cuttlefish has shown us the way. J. R. Woodfill, October 1, 1990. </text>
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<text>163. (continued) itself in decline and disrepute. These event didn't just happen by accident...they happened in part because even the Iron Curtain was not impervious to the Information Revolution sweeping the globe. And...space-based communications have played a key role in this revolution...contrary to the fears of many, the progress of science, on the whole, seems to have benefitted the cause of freedom. I believe that scientific progress goes hand in hand with political and social progressΓÇöthat science and freedom are allies, not enemies... progress in space can and should mean progress for all the peoples of the Earth. (Ibid.)164. There have been those who view man's technological creations as suspect. The attitude is that man should leave nature alone. Yet, nature has been the catalyst, the example for technology. So that the bird flies and man devises the airplane. (continued on next card) (Continued on the next card.)</text>
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<text>162. (Many)...are concerned over the time (it takes)...ideas...(to become) a real space capability. A few months ago (in 1989) we launched the Galileo probe to JupiterΓÇöit will arrive there in the mid-1990s. A few months from now (1990) we will launch the Hubble Space Telescope... But these programs began in the 1970s. Many of you started work (on them)...when you were students; only now are you seeing the results...We've got to figure out how to reduce the time from idea to realization from decades to a few years... (Ibid.)163. The Moon landing was one of the highlights of the 60s, but there (were also) more ominous events as well: the Berlin Wall, the invasion of Czechoslovakia, the Soviet promise to "bury" us. Today...the Berlin Wall is open. Czechoslovakia has embarked on the road to freedom. And far from burying the West, communism finds (continued on next card)</text>
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<text>158. ...our space launch capability...(is) a national resource...like the great railroad, highway, and dam programs of the past. (It is)...as vital to space travel as the interstate highway system is to motor travel. Ibid. 159. I believe that a great nation like ours, at the dawn of the 21st century, should explore space even if there were not tangible benefits on Earth. But of course there are... Ibid.160. In addition, we believe the exploration of space will enhance our economic well-being and our overall national competitiveness. Ibid.161. ...our strategy, of course, is ensuring that our space program contributes to our nation's security. Ibid.</text>
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<text>155. (continued from previous card) generation is going to plant the American flag on Mars. So we've got our work cut out for us. Vice President Dan Quayle in a speech to the American Astronomical Society in Arlington, Virginia.156. Unfortunately, over the past two decades, we have not maintained the momentum of the 1960s. In space launch, our competitive advantage in technology has dissappeared. Ibid. 157. We have continued to have good ideasΓÇöbut our (space) programs seem to be taking too long and costing too much to build. As a result, the rest of the world is catching up and may pass us by. Ibid. </text>
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<text>153. (continued from previous card) 2 million pounds into low-Earth orbit for a Mars mission. For each lunar mission you need about three launches, and for each Mars mission you need about six launches. Aaron Cohen, Director of JSC, as quoted in SPACE NEWS ROUNDUP, Vol. 29, No. 2, January 12, 1990.154. Quite frankly, my parents were much more impressed than I was that America was actually landing on the Moon. You see, my generation grew up expecting Americans to land on the Moon. And my children's generation expects even more from us. As a 17 year old New Yorker said to me during my visit to a Space Camp in Huntsville, Alabama, "Mr. Vice President, my (continued on next card)</text>
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<text>151. There is nothing more difficult to plan, more doubtful of success, nor more dangerous to manage than the creation of a new system. For the initiator has the enmity of all who would profit by the preservation of the old system and merely lukewarm defenders in those who would gain by the new one. Machiavelli, 1513.152. (The Lunar/Mars challenge) No.1, you need some way to get heavy- lift weight into low-Earth orbit. We're quoting that you need about 150,000 pounds per launch into low-Earth orbit for the lunar mission and about 300,000 pounds per launch into low-Earth orbit for a Mars mission. To do one lunar mission, you need between 400,000 and 450,000 pounds, and you need almost (continued on the next card)</text>
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<text>149. RIPLEY'S BELIEVE IT OR NOT lists a Colorado cowboy named Bob Womack who discovered gold in Poverty Gulch, Colorado, in 1890 and sold his claim for $500 during a drunken spree. The area yielded $800,000,000 worth of Gold. After the Apollo 17 landing on the Moon, the nation lost heart for Lunar Exploration, and allowed more than $800,000,000 dollars worth of Saturn 5's, Command Modules, and Lunar Landers to become museum pieces. We shouldn't judge Cowboy Bob too harshly, perhaps, one day the Moon will yield trillions of dollars of Helium 3 for another nation. Ibid.150. We know how to go to Mars. The challenge is to explain to America why we want to go. Eugene Kranz, Director of Flight Operations, JSC. </text>
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<text>148. According to RIPLEY'S BELIEVE IT OR NOT, a tunnel 127 feet deep and 690 feet long was dug beneath the bottom of the Indian Ocean off Pondoland, South Africa in 1921, in a futile attempt to salvage the cargo of the "Grosvenor," which sank in 1782 with $10,000,000 worth of Gold, Diamonds, Rubies, and Emeralds. The effort was abandoned when the Tunnel was only 30 feet away from the ship's location. In like fashion we last visited the Moon in 1972. We proposed to return by 2005, almost 33 years later. Like the Grosvenor treasure, the Moon is rich in treasures for space exploration which include oxygen in oxides, silicon for manufacture of silicon solar cells, and perhaps the greatest treasure of all, rare Helium 3. Hopefully we will not grow weary of our salvage attempt as did those who almost reached the Grosvenor and the $10,000,000 reward. J. R. Woodfill, December 7, 1989. </text>
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<text>146. Our Department of Defense estimates the Soviets have spent $80 billion on space in the past ten years. In a country where one dollar out of every seven is spent on space projects, pressure is being applied to show a return on the investment. In the United State less than one out of every 100 government dollars has been spent on NASA. Ibid., p. 30.147. From a Soviet publication, cost of the Soviet Space Program each year is $13 billion. Launching the Soviet Buran: between $600 and $750 million. The latest MIR mission: $143 million. "Our main problem is that we do not know how to convert developments (in space) into profit, and that unfortunately, does not apply just to cosmonautics but also to a number of other national economic sectors." Leonard David, "Rocket to Rubles," AD ASTRA, December 1989, p. 34.</text>
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<text>144. Communications using satellites save the Soviet Union more than $152 million dollars each year over the cost of laying cables. Ibid., p. 28.145. Opponents of our space program say that the actual gains from space are only surface and superficial and will ultimately have no lasting impact. Perhaps, this could be true in a nonconsumer-oriented economy like the Soviet Union, i.e., benefits are difficult to trace. During the 1960s and 1970s, the U.S. space program was a contributor to the development of the microchip and the subsequent growth of the Silicon Valley. The calculator, the microwave oven and the personal computer are all indirect products of our nation's space program. Ibid., p. 28.</text>
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<text>142. NASA announces the completion of a privately-conducted study of the commercial impact of U.S. space technology. AN EXPLORATION OF BENEFITS FROM NASA/SPINOFF has identified technology spinoffs that resulted in commercial sales of $21.3 billion and an employment impact of more than 350,000 jobs. For a free copy of the study write to the NASA Scientific and Technical Information Facility, P.O. Box 8757, Baltimore, MD 21240. "Resources," AD ASTRA, December 1989, p. 22.143. Today the Soviets maintain and operate over twice as many dif- ferent types of launch vehicles as the United States and during the last 7 years have conducted almost 10 times as many successful launches. These factors have created for the Soviet government an opportunity to sell its launch services in the world market at an unprecedented level. Jan Goldman, "Space Commerce, Soviet Style," AD ASTRA, Dec. 1989, p. 27.</text>
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<text>140. Commercial space, then will not be lost on the way to Mars. On the contrary, lower cost commercial space products will be essential to our pathway to Mars in the years ahead as the sturdy industrial- strength wheels were to the Conestoga wagons of years past. It is American tradition to build commerce on the new frontier. Let us hope that this tradition continues into the Space Age. Let's get on with it!" Joseph P. Allen, "Commercial Space...," AD ASTRA, December 1989, p.3.141. Our economic system and culture make things happen once there is the right mixture of incentive, technology, and creativity. For space we are nowhere near this stage. We pile new projects onto NASA's plate, always asking "What should the big goal be?" Rep. Jerry Lewis, "Space: More Than a Program," AD ASTRA, December 1989. )</text>
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<text>137. (continued) we had spent that money with NASA." At least when you invest in NASA you get what you pay for! Of all the federal agencies, I think NASA provides the most bang for the buck. Jay Jiudice, Las Vegas, Neveda, "Letters," AD ASTRA, Dec. 1989, p. 5.138. For I dipt into the future, far as human eye could see, saw the heavens fill with commerce, argosies of magic sails. Alfred, Lord Tennyson139. So many worlds, so much to do/So little done, such things to be. Alfred, Lord Tennyson</text>
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<text>137. I hate to take advantage of other people's troubles, but the recent problems at the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) have given us some ammunition to use the next timeΓÇöthat is, the next time someone says we ought to be spending the NASA budget on social programs. Based on what's been reported so far, just a few botched housing projects have wasted an amount of money equal to NASA's entire annual budget. Speculation is that we haven't yet uncovered all the problems involving the misuse of funds, so we can expect the total of wasted dollars to grow. Now, I wouldn't dream of taking money out of social programs to fund NASA, but the next time somebody says to you, "Just think what we could have done if we had spent that money on the poor," just tell them, 'Think where we could be if (continued on next card)</text>
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<text>136. The gross national product of the United States alone is now over $5 trillion. Ten percent of that astronomical (excuse the pun) figure is $500 billion. Compared with this environmental cost (destruction of Earth's environment), the space program begins to sound cheap, doesn't it?" Before you bemoan exploitation of the Moon or pollution of Earth orbit, let me remind you that those places are dead. Earth is notΓÇöat least not yet. Earth is the ultimate nonrenewable resource. Before it is too late, we better think about moving our technological production base off planet to maintain this fragile life support system for the benefit of our children and the other life forms we share it with. Michael R. Jude, Denver, Colorado from "Letters," AD ASTRA, December 1989, p. 5.</text>
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<text>133. You would make a ship sail against the winds and currents by lighting a bonfire under her deck.....I have no time for such nonsense. Napoleon on Fulton.134. Man can improve on nature by compelling the resources to renew and even reconstruct themselves in such a manner as to serve increasingly beneficial uses. Theodore Roosevelt.135. The only weapon we have to oppose the bad effects of technology is technology itself. There is no other. We can't retreat into a nontechnological Eden which never existed.... It is only by the rational use of technologyΓÇöto control and guide what technology is doingΓÇöthat we can keep any hopes of a social life more desirable than our own: or in fact of social life which is not appalling to imagine. C. P. Snow.</text>
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<text>131. And in many cases science and technology have come under irrational attack by the forces of ignorance...a group of scientific illiterates drunk with power, heavily influenced by irrelevant political ideologies. A.R. Martin and B. Cohen, "The Resourceful Earth," BLACKWELLS 1984: NATURE, p. 309.132. Then why speculate on that future? For the very reasons man has speculated since the dawn of timeΓÇöto probe the collective imagination, the societal psyche, the sleeping genius of design that will one day resolve the mechanical how and awaken it to the challenge. M. L. Smith, Preface, PLANETARY EXPLORER, special edition, General Dynamics Corporation, San Diego, CA, Vol. 49, No. 4, December 20, 1938.133. "It's never over till it's over." Yogi Berra</text>
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<text>129. If the history of exploration shows anything, it is that once man has discovered any new territory, he will return to it, again and again, finally to set up a permanent base there. I am sure that the same thing will happen with the Moon, simply because it is there, because the challenge of exploration is enormous, and because it is of immense scientific interest. Man is returning again and again to Mount Everest, since it was first climbed in 1953, and the scientific results from it are very much less than from the Moon. Lord Shackleton,1972, the day the final Apollo mission was launched.130. It is difficult to say what is impossible, for the dream of yesterday is the hope of today and the reality of tomorrow. Robert Goddard.</text>
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<text>128. Presently, neither lawmakers nor the majority of our people see space exploration and its use as important to our country's well-being. The Soviet people have embraced the belief that it is a important part of their future. U.S. society reveres sport, movie and rock stars, while cosmonauts in the Soviet Union are at the top of their list of heroes. Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, and Alexei Leonov, the first person to walk in space, are revered as idols. The public popularity of Soviet cosmonauts is almost mythical, as seen in busts of brave space champions that frequent buildings and parks. Soviet museums, monuments and murals give honor to men, women and Soviet spaceships. And the Kremlin's budget for and long term commitment to space has been greater than ours. (Philip R. Harris, "Toward a Space Ethos and Synergy," AD ASTRA, June 1989, p.48.)</text>
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<text>125. The major beneficiaries, specific industries, occupations and states, include many which have heretofore not been linked closely to the space program or to NASA procurement. Ibid., p.32.126. NASA procurement has a multiplier effect on the economy. In 1987, the impact was 2:1 for the entire nation. There were14 states with a multiplier effect of 2 to 1 or greater. The range was from 12:1 in Indiana to 2:2 in New Jersey. Ibid., p.32. 127. (This information) is crucial for emphasizing the total (direct plus indirect) economic benefits of NASA programs to the nation as a whole and to individual cities.. in defending NASA budget requests.. and in justifying increased federal spending for an ambitious space program during the 1990s. (Ibid., p. 32.) during the 1990s. (Ibid., p. 32.)</text>
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<text>123. NASA spending gave more blue collar and lesser skilled workers jobs than degreed scientists and engineers who usually are thought to benefit most from space funding. The report shows substantial state benefits in terms of industry sales and jobs to every state in the U.S. In fact, most of the benefits went to states other than those receiving prime contracts. The most blessed states include many that few would perceive as being closely related to the space program, such as New Jersey, Arizona, Kansas, Illinois, Tennessee, Wisconsin, Michigan, and North Carolina. Ibid., p.32.124. Total (direct plus indirect) economic and employment benefits are between two and three times larger than is usually assumed and are much more pervasive than generally recognized. Ibid., p.32. </text>
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<text>121. Our country should not pit social programs against the space program. OUR SPACE PROGRAM IS A SOCIAL PROGRAM. Benefits include jobs, the general welfare, national security and motivating our technological creativity. Additionally it engenders an "esprit de corps" to use space as both a stimulant for exploration and a marketplace for business and commerce. Charles Walker, "Spreading the Word," AD ASTRA, June 1989, p. 32. 122. NASA procurement funds spent in 1987 generated 210,000 private industry jobs and twice as much business activity as the agency spent within a year. The space agency's 1987, $8.7 billion procurement yielded $17.8 billion in sales within private industry, which included over $2 billion in corporate profits as well as $5.6 billion in federal, state, and local taxes. (Ibid., p.32.)</text>
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<text>120. In short, the process (the government budget process) treats expenditures for investment (like NASA and NSF) no differently than expenditures for consumption (like housing subsidies and veteran's benefits). Consumption programs are important, but they are not interchangeable with investment. Trading one off against another is like a family failing to save for the childrens' college education in order to pay for vacations and new cars every year. You can balance a budget that wayΓÇönot that our government doesΓÇöbut doing so isn't good policy. What can we do? On the large scale, we can try to stress the difference between consumption and investment by emphasizing the importance of space as an investment. Glenn H. Reynolds, "A Guide to Budget Politics," AD ASTRA, June 1989, p. 21.</text>
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<text>118. Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin reported seeing the American flag topple over from the exhaust blast of Eagle's Ascent Engine. For more than twenty years Old Glory has laid quietly in the lunar dust of Tranquility Base. It is time for America to lift our fallen flag for all the world to see by returning to the Moon permanently. J. R. Woodfill, November 9, 1989. 119. I'm very interested in the space program and would like to work for NASA someday...I am 16 years old and I'm recovering from my second open heart surgery. My first one was to replace my mitral valve. My second surgery was to replace my aorta valve. Both valves were made possible, in part, by the space program. Jeffrey Wright of Mt. Juliet, TN, in a letter to AD ASTRA, June 1989. </text>
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<text>116. What many don't remember is that despite President Kennedy's bold 1961 commitment to have Americans on the moon by 1970, in 1963, JFK proposed changing Apollo to a joint Russian/American endeavor. The new tack was a result of international political motivations. To the dismay of NASA budgeteers, the major NASA sales plank of beating the Russians was in grave jeapardy. The escalating Vietnam War ended all discussion of the possibility of a joint U.S./ Soviet Lunar Landing. J. R. Woodfill, November 9, 1989. (Based on AVIATION WEEK article "Kennedy's Offer Stirs Confusion, Dismay: Bids for U.S.-Soviet lunar effort jolts space officials; perils budget; policy shift by Administration is denied." September 30, 1963, p. 26.)117. Shoot for the Moon. If you miss it, you will still land among the stars. (Dr. Norman Vincent Peale, clergyman.)</text>
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<text>114. The time has come to look beyond brief encounters. We must commit ourselves anew to a sustained program of manned exploration of the Solar SystemΓÇöand yesΓÇöthe permanent settlement of space. Ibid.115. It's very, very striking that we're talking in terms of medium-lift vehicles and heavy-lift vehicles in this country. The very best of those, when they're realized in the late 1990s, will have half to two-thirds of the capability of the Saturn V used in the Apollo missions in the '60s. We are going to be trying to get two thirds of the way back up to where we were 15-20 years ago. It's amazing how badly we fell off, and there's a very significant lesson for us as a people and maybe for the human race - namely, that when you fall back after putting a major technological milestone in place, history will say that your civilization was falling apart. (Lowell Wood, SPACE WORLD, April 1987, p. 32.) </text>
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<text>113. To seize this opportunity, I'm not proposing a 10-year plan like Apollo. I'm proposing a long-range, continuing commitment. First, for the coming decadeΓÇöfor the 1990sΓÇöSpace Station FREEDOM ΓÇöour critical next step in all our space endeavors. And next, for the new centuryΓÇöback to the Moon. Back to the future. And this time, back to stay. And then, a journey into tommorow, a journey to another planet, a manned mission to Mars. Each mission should and will lay the groundwork for the next. And the pathway to the stars begins, as it did 20 years ago, with youΓÇöthe American people. And it continues just up the street thereΓÇöto the United States CongressΓÇöwhere the future of the Space Station, and our future as a spacefaring nation, will be decided. Ibid.</text>
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<text>110. From the voyages of Columbus to the Oregon Trail to the journey to the Moon itself, history proves that we have never lost by pressing the limits of our frontiers. Ibid.111. Indeed, earlier this month, one news magazine reported that Apollo paid down-to-Earth dividendsΓÇödeclaring that man's conquest of the Moon "would have been a bargain at twice the price." And they called Apollo "the best return on investment since Leonardo da Vinci bought himself a sketch pad." Ibid.112. To this day, the only footprints on the Moon are American footprints. The only flag on the Moon is an American flag. And the know-how that accomplished these feats is American know-how. What Americans dreamΓÇöAmericans can do. (Ibid.)</text>
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<text>108. Because the Apollo astronauts left more than flags and footprints on the Moon, they also left some unfinished business. For even 20 years ago, we recognized that America's ultimate goal was not simply to go there and go backΓÇöbut to go there and go on. Mike Collins said it best: "The Moon is not a destinationΓÇöit's a direction." President Bush in a speech delivered at the National Air and Space Museum, Washington, D.C., July 20, 1989.109. And today...the U.S. is the richest nation on EarthΓÇöwith the most powerful economy in the world. And our goal is nothing less than to establish the United States as the preeminent spacefaring nation. Ibid.</text>
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<text>106. President Bush has sketched out a human pathway to the planets: first the FREEDOM Space Station, then the Moon, followed by travel to the distant dunes of Mars...As could be expected, a largely cynical press calls the Bush space plan more of a 'sound bite' for television than a program. "No precise timetable. No price tag," decried more than one reporter. Of course, don't forget the words of an Associated Press newsman in December of 1903, learning of the Wright Brothers first powered flight that lasted all of 57 seconds. "Fifty-seven seconds, eh?" responded the reporter. "If it had been 57 minutes then it might have been a news item." Leonard David, "Chalk Talk," AD ASTRA, September 1989, p. 37.107. We don't give ticker tape parades for robots. Astronaut Thomas Stafford.</text>
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<text>104. A study released in 1989 comparing NASA and Defense space budgets reveals that in fiscal year 1981 NASA and DOD funding for space programs were at about the same level. Although from 1981 to 1989 NASA's space funding increased approximately 100 percent, from about $5 billion to about $10 billion (not in real year dollars), DOD's space funding increased approximately 228 percent from about $5 billion to about $16 billion. "Mission Control"/"Best Budget," AD ASTRA, September 1989, p. 6.105. To earn the title of father of modern rocketry, Robert Goddard received much persecution from the media. His pioneering work, which discussed how a rocket could reach the Moon, earned him the press title of "Moon Man." When his trial rocket exploded, the NEW YORK TIMES made jokes of him missing the Moon by 240,000 miles. Ibid., p. 37.</text>
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<text>102. The space program should always go 'full throttle up.' That's not just our ambition; it's our destiny. President George Bush to Congress, February 1989.103. Today, the future of human expansion into the solar system is embodied in the one percent solutionΓÇöthe entire NASA space program that is less than one percent of the federal budget. Compare this with the heady days of the Apollo program, when the nation doled out 4-5 percent of its government monies for space exploration. That percen- tage today would yield upwards of $50 billion in America's trillion dollar-plus economy. (1990 fiscal budget 1.6 trillion dollars) If we would have spent 4-5 percent of the federal budget the last 20 to 30 years, we would have people living in space right now. We would probably have a lunar base..." Frank Martin, NASA.</text>
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<text>100. Such a person (ideal presential candidate for space) would recognize that the issues of space and those of Earth are not 'either/or' propositions, but are closely linked. He would not do what other leaders have done: build some great technology and when it works, throw it away...I dream of a leader who will pick up Kennedy's torch, grasp it with the single mindedness of Johnson and carry it forward again into what we all wish will be a future full of opportunities, full of hope. Ibid., p. 34.101. I cannot believe that an aimless NASA is acceptable and doubt that Americans will support a space program without exciting goals. (For example) a vague objective like "human presence in space" was outdated by Yuri Gagarin 28 years ago. Dr. Thomas O. Paine, "Letters," AD ASTRA, May 1989, p. 4.</text>
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<text>98. Though the Apollo program cost 200,000 times the cost of Christopher Columbus' expedition and, in present day dollars, the price tag of the Pilgrims' voyage to America was only $10 million (1988 dollars), compared to the wealth of America and our Gross National Product both ventures were much more costly to pursue. J. R. Woodfill, 11-9-89 (suggested by data put forth by T. F. Rogers in "A Challenge," AD ASTRA, January, 1989, p. 32. 99. Who is the ideal presidential candidate as far as space policy is concerned? For my money, he would be a blend of John Kennedy and Lyndon Johnson: an eloquent visionary and, at the same time, a practical, push-these-programs-through-Congress-or-else-doer. Alcestis Oberg, "Space Politics Forum," SPACE WORLD, May 1988, p. 34.</text>
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<text>97. (continued from previous card) (7) Will you play golf, racquetball, tennis or fish with your new light- weight, durable equipment made from the latest composite materials and alloys used in spacecraft? (8) Is you smoke detector at home on? Will it stay on in case of a power outage? (9) Did you pass through those airport security protector X-rays? All of these are spinoffs from your space program. "Ecomonic Rationale: Technology Technology Transfer/Spinoff," SPACE PROGRAM RATIONAL STUDY, Space Business Research Center, 1989. </text>
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<text>97. What space benefit did you use today? (1) Did you plan a weekend outing based on the long-term weather forecasts on TV from a meteorological satellite? (2) Did you watch a late-breaking news report live from Europe or China thanks to communication satellites? (3) Did you make a long distance phone call and reach someone around the world, even on a car phone? (4) Did you eat a quick dinner thanks to freeze-dried food? (5) Did you use a personal computer or pocket calculator, or quartz-crystal digital watch? (6) To avoid unnecessary diagnostic surgery, did you take a high-tech medical test such as a CAT scan or ultrasound? (continued on the next card) </text>
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<text>96. Critics complain that the space program (less than 1% of the federal budget) takes money from the poor, homeless and disabled. Yet, many of the technological advances of the space program have led to applica- tions that have helped these groups. Just a few examples: materials used for low-cost prefabricated housing came from new composite materials developed for the space program. These durable, light-weight and cheaper materials also can be used for prosthesis and other devices for the disabled. Space medical technology breakthroughs have allowed agencies not only to bring better care to the needy, especially in remote areas, but to develop better diagnostic ways to prevent disease, thus helping to lower medical costs. Our experience with the physically- deteriorating conditions of weightlessness helps us care more effectively with the physical problems of the aged. New nonspoiling food packaging ...provide better ways to (feed) the hungry. (Ibid.) ...provide better ways to (feed) the hungry. (Ibid.) ...provide better ways to (feed) the hungry. (Ibid.)</text>
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<text>94. The U.S. space program is in its "Kitty Hawk" phase. Critics of Orville and Wilber Wright could not foresee what their strange-looking powered flying machine could do. The federal government failed to develop the vision of Kitty Hawk. When World War I broke out, the government had no "flying machines" to fight the Red Baron and other airborne adversaries. American pilots had to literally borrow airplanes from their foreign Allies. After the war we built a military air power and vowed never to be caught technologically unprepared again. In 1957, Sputnik shocked the world - and the US government found itself once again technologically unprepared. (Ibid.)95. ...learning how to get to the moon, developing the technology to get there and employing this technology for many purposes in space is more important than the lunar landing itself. James Webb.</text>
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<text>92. The question we must ask ourselves is will we be that spacefaring people or an Earthbound one? Are we to carry our frontier heritageΓÇö destinyΓÇöinto the universe, or will we wallow in memories? Carreau, THE HOUSTON CHRONICLE, October 4, 1987.93. Space science has a unique and broad territory. Not only are the objects in space the most numerous and largest objects in the universe, but they span the greatest distance. Space science, therefore, covers 99.999999+ % of the known universe. Audrey Schwartz, SPACE PROGRAM RATIONAL STUDY, Space Business Research Center, 1989.</text>
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<text>90. Should the new liberalized quasi-free enterprise economies of the former communist giants grow exponentially in the world market, the industrial by-products of pollution of air and water may in the short term call for major increases in space spending directly related to surveying Earth. J. R. Woodfill, November 8, 198991. We wondered what was beyond the horizon, and we went to see what was there. We saw the great expanse of oceans and desired to cross to the other side. And, throughout the ages, we looked up at and dreamed about the stars, moon and heavens. We've even instilled that curiousity in our children with their nursey rhymes: 'Twinkle, twinkle, little star. How I wonder what you are.' Only now, in our age, do we have the means to find out. Audrey Schwartz, CULTURAL RATIONALES, UHCL.</text>
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<text>88. As in other areas, major changes are afoot which promise a different world in just a few years. The primary driver here is the transforma- tion taking place in the two great communist countries, the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China...the new wars will be economic... Ibid., p. 7.89. A potential windfall for civilian space effort looms based on the defusing and demilitarization of the Communist Block. The Star Wars military space budget has been approximately 1.5 times NASA's annual budget. Should a major share be available for returning NASA to Apollo budget levels of $30 B (equivalent 1990 dollars), civilian projects such as a Lunar Base or Mars manned landing might be possible. J. R. Woodfill, November 8, 1989.</text>
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<text>86. It is not impossible, however, that a material will be created whose processing in space will offer the advantages that make the enormous costs worthwhile. That rationale cannot be used until such a material is found; but once found, it would provide a good basis for justifying the space program. Ibid., p. 6.87. A third set of conditions which will change the rationale for space in the 1990s is the degree of economic prosperity which the U.S. and the other spacefaring nations enjoy...If the1990s should produce booming prosperity, the space program will be one of the beneficiaries...In times of economic prosperity, the cultural motives of exploration and human habitation would seem to be the most powerful... (resulting in) a larger and more capable space station and a decision to go beyond, to the moon or Mars. Ibid., p. 6. moon or Mars. Ibid., p. 6.</text>
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<text>85. One can imagine international agencies emerging in the 1990s with a mission similar to the international Monetary Fund and the World BankΓÇö to promote the cooperation of nations for the control and preservation of the earth's ecosystem. These agencies will have to have the ability of monitoring the system they are charged to regulateΓÇöthe CO2, the temperature, the ozone, the forest cover, the pollution. Space is the ideal location to observe the earth for such purposes. To the extent then, that population and ecological pressure is an issue of the 1990s, a suitable rationale for the space program would be the monitoring of the earth in a new wayΓÇöas a unified systemΓÇöwhich humans, because of their impact on that system, must begin to regulate through positive control. Ibid. </text>
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<text>82. In fact, the efficacy of military reconnaissance today is often credited with the relatively global peace we have enjoyed for the last 40 years. It is difficult to prepare for war in the day of the modern military satellite. WHY GO TO SPACE?, Dr. Peter Bishop, UHCLC, June 7, 1989.83. The answers to these questions (what rationale will determine the nature of space endeavors in the 1990s) depend on the type of world and the type of space program that will emerge in the 1990s. Ibid.84. But the doomsday prophecies of the 1970s were belied by the technological advances of the 1980s. Hence, today we have more food, more energy, more materials than ever before in history. Ibid. </text>
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<text>80. The one spectacularly commercial return from space has been in telecommunications. The returns were so obvious and so large (putting a satellite in geosynchronous orbit costs only about 2% of the revenue it generates..." Ibid., p. 222.81. The times are changing when NASA's polar platform, Earth Observation System (EOS) is called a "Saviour in Orbit." NASA's polar platform may play a major part in saving the world. Perhaps, the environmental status of Planet Earth is so serious as to be the crisis motiviating serious manned exploration of the Moon and beyond. If the 1970s oil shortage precipitated an upheavel in world politics and technology, what might follow from shortages of breathable air, drinkable water, and available food. J. R. Woodfill, 8-89. </text>
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<text>78. I've learned another lesson, too. Once you reach your arm out into the universe to take hold of knowledge, you need to pull your arm back, open your hand wide, and share your knowledge with the world. Terry Morris, "Education Gave Me Self Esteem," NASA MAGAZINE, Fall, 1991, NASA, Washington, DC 20546, p. 36.79. Twelve years after Columbus discovered America, Breton fishermen were trawling the cod banks off the coast of Newfoundland. Thirt years later, Cortez was engaged in the conquest of Mexico. The human race first landed on the Moon in 1969. Apollo 17 left in 1972. Since then there has been no return. Nor, are there plans to return this century. Yet if we look at the parallel with Columbus, we should have returned to the Moon by 1981. We should now be planning for the start of permanent Lunar colonies by the end of the century. (R. Parkinson, "Cities on the LIGHT, Vol. 31, July 89, p. 220.)</text>
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<text>77. (Continued) (3) Fire fighter's suits made of flame proof space-suit material are flame proof and water proof yet allow body heat and body moisture to escape. (4) Foods are able to be better preserved and not spoil using space food techniques. (5) Dishes that can be moved immediately from a freezer to an oven without breaking. (6) Filters to purify water on faucets were developed for spaceships and astronauts first. J. R. Woodfill, 11-8-89. </text>
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<text>77. When asked about space benefits he had learned in school, a seventh grade student made the following list: (1) Heart patients benefit being in space. Their hearts don't have to work so hard. And since burned patients would not lay on their burns, neither would bed sores be a problem in space. (2) Space fabric is strong and light weight. Using it to make roofs for large stadiums has saved millions of dollars. (continued on next card) </text>
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<text>75. At its peak, the space program cost $5 billion (1963 dollars). The Department of health, Education, and Welfare spends that amount every eight days. Ibid., p. 297.76. In 1903 Wilbur Wright made the statement: "It is my belief that flight is possible and while I am taking up the investigation for pleasure rather than profit, I think there is a slight possibility of achieving fame and fortune from it." In light of aviation progress in the ensuing 87 years, Wilbur's statement appears extremely short-sighted. Perhaps, those who hold that further manned exploration of the moon and solar system offers little opportunity for profit will appear similarly myopic in 2050, eighty years after Neil Armstrong's first footstep on the moon. J. R. Woodfill,11-8-89.</text>
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<text>73. (Referring to the first trip to the moon) Columbus has now returned to Spain, and some have been convinced that the world is not flat. But Magellan has yet to set sail for other uncharted ports, just as we will set sail for the planets. History will eventually show that Columbus' voyage was insignificant when compared to man's first trip to the moon. Ibid., p. 296.74. The Apollo spacecraft represented New World craftsmanship at work. While the rest of the world looked on, it performed and added a new dimension to that phrase so prominent on the sides of World War II crates and seen again on the hull of Apollo: MADE IN USA. Ibid., p. 297.</text>
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<text>71. We had to play catch-up (refering to the Soviet lead in Space Technology), and it triggered a near-revolution in education. In the decade of Sputnik, United States spending on education doubled; science, math, and foreign languages were upgraded; and the number of high school graduates doubled." Walt Cunningham, THE ALL-AMERICAN BOYS, 1977, p. 295.72. I sometimes picture knowledge as a huge, spherical balloon. Each new generation has a responsibility to blow up that balloon a little bit more. Most of the time, technology expands in little spurts here and there. In the sixties, this nation blew a breath into that balloon and expanded man's knowledge tremendously in many directions simultaneously. Ibid., p. 295.</text>
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<text>70. Some fear that men will carry their prejudices into space. It is more likely that those setting out for the stars will leave racial and national differences on Earth. It is symbolic that flags will not fly in the vacuum of space. The world's conflicts cannot be pursued in the hostile environment of space. Earth's descendents will find new ways of relating to one another when they land on the moon, or Mars, or planetary satellites. This was the case in the United States a hundred years ago, and this is the prospect for united planets in the centuries ahead. The real motivating aspect of space exploration to those with youthful spirits is the Frontier, which a few years ago seemed lost forever, is open again. This time the prospect for it is never to close. Ibid, p. 31.</text>
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<text>69. Those who areΓÇöunderstandablyΓÇöobsessed with the urgent problems of today, aim at the wrong target when they attack the space program. They say the money would be better spent on the ghettos or the hungry, especially with so much already going to the Viet Nam war. That the money would in fact be spent in such a way is, at best, debatable. Moreover, cost effectiveness is not a criticism that can or should be applied to advanced technology. Who would have put money on atomic energy in 1940? A nation which concentrates on the present will have no future; in statesmanship, as in everyday life, wisdom lies in the right division of resources between today's demands and tomorrow's needs. Ibid., p. 31.</text>
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<text>67. Not long ago, a critic of the space program suggested that as soon as the first astronauts came safely back from the moon, we should wind up manned flight and leave exploration entirely to robots. This may well rank as the silliest statement of a notably silly decade; to match it one must imagine Columbus saying: "Well, boys, there's land on the horizonΓÇönow let's go home." Arthur C. Clarke, "Beyond the Moon: No End", TIME, July 18, 1969, p. 31.68. The next decade (referring to the 70's), therefore, despite all the spectacular achievements it will surely bring, will be a period of consolidation. Such a technological plateau occurred in 1945-55, when the results of wartime rocket research had to be assimilated before the first break-through into space was possible. We are now entering a very similar period; sometime after 1985, the true space age will begin to dawn. Ibid., p. 31. Ibid., p. 31.</text>
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<text>66. A driving motivation of our space program is a spirit of exploration, courage, and adventure. This same spirit drove American explorers West, motivated treks to our Earth's poles, and took men to the moon. And like an infectious disease, it contaminated the hearts and minds of men of valor as heroes of our history provided the foundation for future Americans in space. For example, in the 1920s Charles Lindbergh was introduced to America's rocket pioneer, Robert Goddard. Lindbergh was instrumental in obtaining a $50,000 Guggenheim grant for Goddard which allowed Goddard to move to New Mexico where he laid the foundation for rockets which one day would take men to the Moon. J. R. Woodfill. </text>
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<text>65. The space program effectively distributes tax dollars throughout the U.S. in a free enterprise, democratic fashion so that one region is not lavishly treated to public funds. For example, NASA selected 16 prime contractors (for the Apollo Program), who in turn, assigned work to tens of thousands of subcontractors. The firms ranged in size from North American Rockwell, which had 105,000 employees and built the giant Saturn 5, to the Space Electronics Supply Co. of Melbourne, Florida., a two-man operation that made fuse holders for Apollo. "How It Was Managed", TIME, July 18, 1969, p. 28.</text>
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<text>63. Lunar gravity is relatively so weak, as a matter of fact, that some scientists have suggested launching spacecraft by simply accelerating them with electrical power along a track. Unimpeded by atmospheric friction, the vehicles could accelerate very rapidly, limited only by the maximum gravity that their cargo could withstand. An unmanned craft designed to take a force of 50 g, for example, could reach escape velocity on a track only four miles long. Manned ships, whose passengers could not be exposed to so high a g-force, would need a track considerably longer. Ibid., p. 23.64. Manufacturers who need elaborately protected 'clean rooms' on earth for their production processes would find that the moon itself is a huge clean room, with no atmosphere to circulate dust and other contaminants around assembly areas. Ibid., p. 23.</text>
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<text>61. Since lunar gravity is one sixth that of earth's, structure bending resulting from the weight of frames and materials would not be significant so that a telescope mirror could be built ten times larger than on Earth. And material to build the mirror would be available on the moon. Silicon for mirrors is plentiful there. Also, inexact grinding would not be a problem since the moon's vacuum would lend itself to use of ion beam depositing of the mirror finish. Ibid., p. 22.62. The moon is also a natural, orbiting Cape Kennedy. To blast off, a spacecraft need overcome a pull of gravity one-sixth as strong as the Earth's and does not have to expend any energy to push through the atmosphere. Thus an escape velocity of little more than 5,000 mph (vs. 25,000 mph from earth) and the use of a relatively small amount of fuel will be sufficient to launch moon rockets... Ibid., p. 23.</text>
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<text>60. The environment that makes the moon so hostile to terrestrial life is, paradoxically, precisely what makes the moon so potentially valuable. (1) A near vacuum atmosphere exposes the moon to deadly radiation but provides an ideal site for telescopes and some industries. (2) Meteors and space dust for centuries have peppered the moon without atmospheric interference, leaving a wealth of minerals easily collected on the surface. (3) The two week long lunar days and nights yield extremely hot and cold temperatures (+250 degrees F to -240 degrees F) which can be used to advantage by lunar settlers. "Can the Moon Be of Any Earthly Use?", TIME, July 18, 1969, pp. 22-23.</text>
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<text>59. (continued) Such a large program could be sold concurrently with another on-going large NASA program. He concludes, "In describing the decision to go to the Moon, I suggest that the politics of the moment had become linked to the dreams of centuries and the aspirations of the nation. There is no way to make this happen, but it seems to be the necessary condition for making the dream of a permanent lunar base a reality." John Logsdon, "The Future in Space," Proceedings of Lunar Conference held in the Lunar Research Institute, 1987, p. 701-709.</text>
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<text>59. In his paper, "The Future in Space," John Logsdon studies the factors which helped to bring about the three main space programs of the space era: the manned Lunar Landing, the Space Shuttle, and the Space Station. He evaluates the significant agents and timing which brought each to pass. His purpose was to plan an advocacy approach for the construc- tion of a Lunar Base. Logsdon asserts that the executive branch, congress, and tax payers will permit only one major space endeavor at a time and these seem to require at least a decade to plan and fulfill. So that while the Space Station reserves the attention of the nation, no thrust back to the moon or beyond (Mars) will prove fruitful. However, he encourages planning, both technical and advocational, until the Station Program begins to ramp down in budget requirements. He cautions nevertheless a crisis could call for an ambitious next step. (continued on the next card)</text>
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<text>57. TIME magazine in its July 25, 1969 issue (page 17) quoted Nobel prizewinning Stanford physicist, Robert Hofstadter as saying (referring to man landing on the moon), "In a thousand years there will be few things remembered, but this will be one of them." Perhaps, this may come to pass, but unfortunately, many youth and teens in 1991 are not aware man landed on the moon, others argue that the event was a staged hoax, and there are those who remember we went, but don't care. J. R. Woodfill,11-6-91.58. Though NASA spokesmen like Werhner von Braun predicted an early manned Mars landing within a decade and a half after Apollo, Vice President Spiro Agnew, head of the task force for space initiatives, spoke of a landing on Mars by 2000. As a politician, Agnew knew the difficulties such a venture would pose for Congress. J. R. Woodfill, 11/6/89.</text>
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<text>56. TIME magazine reported in the July 25th, 1969 issue on page 17 that a Londoner, David Threlfall, 26, collected $24,000 on a 1,000 to one odds bet made with $24 in 1964 that men would walk on the moon by 1971. The bookmaking firm of William Hill Ltd. made good on the bet. If such a bet were made in 1992 that men would return to the Moon within seven years what might the odds be in light of the space malaise of recent years? A million to one? Ten million to one? Virtually every person knowledgeable of space would agree such a repeat feat is impossible in light of the present state of space technology and the world's will for funding such a venture before the next century. The prospect of the American led consortium of space station nations putting FREEDOM in orbit by 1997, might get Mr. Threlfall odds of 24,000 to 1 with local book-makers. J. R. Woodfill, 11-7-89. </text>
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<text>54. (continued) (2) Advertisements which advocate solutions to environmental problems using adequate Earthbound technologies should be refuted. (3) The Space Industry needs to allocate funds to a low key, but effectively sustained campaign to awaken the average citizen's interests in space-based solutions to Earthly problems. (4) Political acceptance of the merit of significant space budget increases for industrial and environmental goals must be encouraged. Ibid., p. 240.55. Resources available on the Moon and in the Solar System will eventually be essential (in 50 to 500 years) to side-step a marked limitation to the growth of civilization. Ibid., p. 240.</text>
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<text>53. The political process of our time does not try to support cures for ourenvironmental problems. The process only reacts to the symptoms, but climatic pressure will soon alter this approach. Some governments will develop space endeavors that initially will appear rash to the political critics. Unfortunately, there is a problem in waiting for an environmental crisis to require political intervention. It may come too late to avoid major disasters and social impacts. This is a result of engineering (space) systems taking time to reach useful status. Ibid., p. 239.54. Environmental arguments for expansion of the space infrastructure to include the moon and space as sources of alternate manufacturing and sites for waste must be prepared by specialists in the world-wide Space industry. (1) Critics must be forced to offer credible long term options or accept the Space Cause. (continued on next card)</text>
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<text>50. An example of the perceived 'business-as-usual' reaction option to warming and drying of agricultural regions is to develop hardier varieties of plants such as winter wheat. This technological fix will do nothing to reduce the climatic warm-up... The adaption to a degrading environment can go only so far before a major unpleasant change becomes unavoidable. Ibid., p. 238.51. Even technological fixes like the use of commercial fusion power by the year 2050 are not encouraging. Ibid., p. 238.52. Renewable energy sources like wind sources of power are limited to predominantly windy locations or even less numerous appropriate coastal areas. Replacement of fossil fuel burning power plants by solar energy driven systems is not credible. Ibid., p. 238.</text>
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<text>48. Many think technology will solve the problem (of Earth's degrading environment) in a routine 'business as usual' approach. Unfortunately, there are no models forecasting a bright future without extreme intervention during the next century. Such models do not predict improved living standards for the people of Earth. Ibid., p. 239.49. Still another dreaded result (of the degraded environment) seems to be hurricanes of increasing intensity (and frequency). These appear to result from the heat input in the Atlantic ocean during the northern summer. Predictions of solar heat trapping from earlier studies may have been much too conservative. (Destruction of the ozone layer by CFC's is also contributing to the greenhouse effect.) Ibid., p. 238.</text>
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<text>47. The Earth's environment is now an issue of growing political importance as more adverse effects of the alterations caused by a century of industrial activity become apparent, even to nontechnically minded people. J. Sved, "Deciding to Colonize the Moon," SPACECRAFT, Vol. 31, July 1989, p. 238.</text>
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<text>45. Bobby Kennedy recalled that the President compared the importance of space to the exploration of the US by Lewis and Clarke, concluding, "I (Bobby Kennedy) think that made a profound impression on him." ROBERT KENNEDY IN HIS OWN WORDS, p. 340.46. While not the only one, popular... science fiction clearly had an impact on the American space program, in the politics of space. If nothing else, science fiction created an interest in space among the majority of the American people and convinced them that going to the Moon would occur one day. In turn, President Kennedy, consciously or subconsciously, drew on the cultural images of adventure and exploration within science fiction to sell the Moon program to the nation. Dr. L. Suid, "Space Travel: Fiction and Reality," SPACEFLIGHT, Vol. 31, July 1989, p. 232. July 1989, p. 232.</text>
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<text>43. In some measure then, by launching the Apollo Program, Kennedy saw himself in relation to NASA as Isabella to Columbus, with a successful landing on the Moon ensuring his place in history. Dr. L. Suid, "Space Travel: Fiction and Reality," SPACEFLIGHT, Vol. 31, July 1989, p. 232.44. Clearly, the President could not go before Congress and request $25 billion to become immortal. Instead he used other arguments: the need to beat the Soviets and so demonstrate the continued American technological superiority over the USSR; the gains for science and technology regardless of the outside competition; and the focus argument, which used the Apollo Program to push the entire US space effort. Theodore Sorensen, 12-2-87.</text>
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<text>41. These then, are years of transition. Just as the development of the automobile and aircraft industries resulted in a greater, stronger national economy, providing new jobs for millions, so are the trails of space adding new opportunities in the restless movement to unlimited horizons. AMERICAN SPACE DIGEST, Shick Razor Company, 1963, p. 60.42. Robert Goddard credited his interest in science-fiction as the motivator for his rocket studies. In a letter to H.G. Wells he wrote, "aiming at the stars...is a problem to occupy generations, ...no matter how much progress one makes, there is always the thrill of just beginning." Robert Goddard in a letter to H.G. Wells, April 20, 1932.</text>
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<text>40. Project Apollo inspired the invention of (1) Ingestible tooth paste (2) The nontippable life raft (3) Golf clubs, tennis, and jet fighter bodies made out of graphite (4) Cordless power tools (screw-drivers, drills, and the DUST-BUSTER are a result of the battery operated Lunar core-sample drills of Apollo). Ibid., p. 303. </text>
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<text>38. (Space technology has made) contributions to the fight against world hunger through direct and indirect benefits to agriculture. Satellites have long since become key tools in weather and crop forecasting as well as in large-scale drought and soil erosion photo-surveys. Solar energy collection panels based on Apollo prototypes are widely used in the...wheat belt for more cost-efficient grain drying. Ibid., p. 301.39. Advances in traction engineering made.... (for) the Moon Rover vehicles enabled Goodyear to introduce the first studless snow tire, a milestone in the improvement of winter auto safety. Ibid., p. 303.</text>
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<text>37. Five years after the final manned lunar landing (1977), two California computer whiz kids, Steven Jobs and Steven Wozniak, built the first home computer, the Apple I. By 1987... annual sales of home computers were over $26 billion. Yes, man could have invented the home computer without Project Apollo, but maybe not in this century. The ingenious twosome who founded Apple in 1977 did not have to start from scratch. Their machine was in reality a grandchild of over twenty years of effort stimulated by the space program. The work included the national goal to improve math, science, and engineering education. This effort was required to meet JFK's goal. The home computer is a very good example of a side benefit of the space program. Ibid., p. 300.</text>
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<text>35. The exact dollar value of Project Apollo's spinoffs is almost incalculable. (Direct benefits), i.e. items developed or invented expressly for the space program that were later transferred directly to the private sectorΓÇöare well over $1 billion annually... But the economic impact of indirect benefits derived or adapted from the space program is many hundreds of billions even by the strictest accounting formula. Harry Hurt, "For All Mankind," THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY PRESS, 1988, p. 299.36. The invention of the silicon chip in 1958ΓÇönot President Kennedy's challenge in 1961... began the modern age of microelectronics. But Project Apollo gave the new technologies of computers and miniaturization a common and well-defined goal, a political urgency and a multibillion-dollar economic incentive. Ibid., p. 299.</text>
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<text>33. (People fail to appreciate Apollo benefits because) many of the most important by-products evolved over a decade or longer. (These) gadgets and gizmos once dismissed as 'impossible dreams' became universally accepted facts of everyday life. Ibid., p. 298.34. Man's ceaseless urge to explore has taken him from Columbus to CanaveralΓÇö470 years of reaching: first beyond the earth's horizon, and now, to the brink of the horizonless void of space. In 1492, heads wagged in Spain when King Ferdinand put up money for an Italian crackpot to seek a new route to India by sailing west, but by 1992, men will be living and working on the moon and party conversations will open with, "What's new on Mars?" Written in 1963 as introduction to AMERICAN SPACE DIGEST, Schick Safety Razor Company. </text>
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<text>31. "Going to the moon was a case where everybody on the planet won," declares Apollo 12's Alan Bean. "Those who took part in it won the most, which they deserved to do because they put more into it...but every citizen, whether they worked on the Apollo project or not, was a winner. Everybody benefited from it." Harry Hurt, "For All Mankind," THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY PRESS, 1988, p. 323.32. There is considerable sentiment that Apollo was a dead-end venture, and we have little left to show for it. Future historians may one day regard that sentiment as the grossest public misperception of the twentieth century. Like Columbus' discovery of America, man's conquest of the moon opened a new world that is anything but a dead end. Ibid., p. 297.</text>
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<text>29. Not since John Kennedy, has an American leader embraced space exploration for the long term. The vision he had is as relevant today as it was when he spoke to the American public in the heat of the Cold War: "Now it is time to take longer strides, time for a great new American enterprise, time for this nation to take a clearly leading role in space achievements, which in many ways may hold the key to our future on Earth." Gary Stephenson and Greg Freiherr, "How to Beat the High Cost of Space," FINAL FRONTIER, p. 53.30. Depletion of ozone in the stratosphere over the South Pole has equalled the record level that scientists found in 1987, NASA reported yesterday. WASHINGTON TIMES, October 13, 1989.</text>
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<text>28. NASA Administrator, Tom Paine, made this forecast to TIME Magazine on the eve of the first manned Lunar Landing in the summer of 1969: NASA Administrator Thomas Paine is so confident of continued progress in space flight and the establishment of lunar bases that he foresees vacations on the moon within two decades (1989) that will cost the affluent thrill seeker as little as $5,000ΓÇöround trip. "There is no question," Paine says, "that we can reduce the cost of travel to the moon to the cost of travelling through the air today. The spacecraft we use will be descendants of today's Boeing 707s and Douglas DC-8s, married to today's hydrogen-oxygen rockets." "To the Moon," TIME, special supplement, p. 24.</text>
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<text>26. Vendors watch for cars with pitted windshields parked in lots. A new process using a NASA developed resin is able to repair the pit in minutes at little cost, rather than replacing the entire windshield. Insurance companies will pay the cost, which is often less than $40, rather than replace the windshield even though a $100 deductible is involved. Janis Woolley, 10-31-89.27. "It's unfortunate, but the way the American people are, now that they have developed all of this capability (referring to Apollo and the Saturn 5 rocket), instead of taking advantage of it, they'll probably (toss) it all away." That 1967 statement ( said privately by President Johnson to astronauts Wally Schirra and Walt Cunningham) is proving to have been quite prophetic. Walt Cunningham, ALL AMERICAN BOYS, p. 63.</text>
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<text>24. (Continued, "Compared to What") combined net worth of the 400 richest Americans is a whopping $156 trillion. Even if all 400 flew to Mars in the same spacecraft (a stretch model with built-in bar, no doubt), there'd probably still be enough money left over to fill the supply ship with caviar." Tony Reichhardt, "Compared to What?," FINAL FRONTIER, p. 23.25. As we approach 1992 still searching for a goal in space, it is important to remember that Columbus' goal was to find a short trade route to the Orient - and that he failed! His voyage of discovery was greater than his goal and failure. Will history consider us as farsighted and enlightened as Isabella and Ferdinand?" Patric McGuire, "The Mail," NEWSWEEK, October 13, 1988, p. 12. </text>
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<text>24. If we divided NASA's 1989 budget for shuttle operations by the missions flown that year, one flight costs $400 million. Coca-Cola spent about that much on advertising in 1989. Direct mail advertisers paid $19.1 billion in 1987 to fill your mailboxΓÇöor about twice as much as NASA spent in that same year. Consider the cost of the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI)? NASA's ten years of listening for aliens cost $80 million or an average of eight million a year. Now the Pentagon's 1986 phone bill was about the same as the ten year cost ($84.8 million), and the University of Alabama spent on athletics during one (1985-86) season about the same as NASA averaged for a year on SETI ($8.6 million). And next time someone tells you we can't afford the space program, be sure to ask who "we" are? According to FORBES magazine, the (Continued on next card).</text>
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<text>23. This year's budget request for space station Freedom is $2.1 billion. That's roughly one-fourth the amount Americans spend each year on pornography, and half what they spend on perfume. The cost of the entire Voyager program, from launch in 1977 through Voyager 2's rendezvous with Neptune in 1989, comes to $556 million. That's just six million more than junk bond trader Michael Milken "earned" as personal income in 1987. It's about $50 million more than Americans paid for products related to Halley's Commet during its last visit. By comparison, movie goers shelled out a combined total of $503 million through the end of 1987 to see Star Wars, Return of the Jedi, and The Empire Stikes Back. Meanwhile, a single "Stealth" bomber goes for $531 million, and the current plan is to build 132 of them. "Compared to What," FINAL FRONTIER, T. Reichhardt, August 1989, p. 23.</text>
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<text>20. Global warming, depletion of the protective ozone layer, and other environmental threats give the Earth Environmental Satellite System new urgency. Frank Colucci, "All Eyes on Earth," SPACE, August 1989.21. David Gump, founder of the biweekly "Space Business News," notes that 28 years after the Wright brothers flew the first manned aircraft commercial airline flights with dozens of passengers were routine. But 28 years after Yuri Gagarin's first space lap around the globe, space travel is still reserved for a select group of government employees." Rick Peterson, "Notes from Earth," FINAL FRONTIER, October 1989, p.12.22. Though many view the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz as the end of the space race, the Soviets raced on, developing, a space station, a shuttle, and the Energia. J. R. Woodfill, 10-30-89.</text>
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<text>17. The Russians are aware of the importance of space as a "peace corps" extension of their influence on our world offering India a free launch for the Indian remote sensing satellite, IRS-1A from the USSR. "Benefits from Space Technology, a View from a Developing Country," Y. S. Yajan, SPACE POLICY, August 1988, p. 225.18. China seems to be poised to increase its efforts in development and utilization of space technology. It is also gearing up to realize fully the commercial opportunities afforded by its space technology. Ibid., p. 226.19. More than 100 developing countries use satellite communication facilities in some form and about 50 developing countries use satellite remote-sensing data for resource management. Ibid., p. 226.</text>
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<text>16. NASA serves as a technological "Peace Corps" (cf. "Benefits from Space Technology, a View from a Developing Country, " SPACE POLICY, August 1988, Y. S. Yajan, p. 225) by providing benefits for the poorest and most handicapped nations, "leap-frogging" obsolete technologies, doing things which would be impossible for them with their present means to provide each citizen opportunity and a better standard of living. Communications, weather forecasting, and remote sensing are examples of these ample benefits. J. R. Woodfill, 10-30-89. </text>
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<text>14. NASA provides a space market for the development of a commercial space industry. When a need is not present, the Japanese do a similar thing to guarantee a market to develop a commercial industry which will benefit Japan. (Examples, robotics and computers.) Many American cars are now made by Japanese robots in Detroit plants. Ibid., p. 58.15. Though the 1992 NASA budget is to be $14.3 billion dollars, a seemingly generous figure compared to the $5.5 billion NASA received each year in its golden era of Apollo, NASA actually will only be getting about $2.9 billion in Apollo year R&D dollars, a paltry sum, indeed! J. R. Woodfill, 10-22-89.</text>
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<text>13. Another example of NASA type government intervention is the computer industry. The first electronic computers were made under military contracts; computer companies were heavily funded by government contracts. Until 1955, except for Bell labs, almost all other computer type research was government funded. The successes that made IBM profitable, the random-access magnetic core memory and transistorized computers, were both federally funded. Both the silicon transistor and the integrated circuit were developed for military or NASA use. The technology of LSI (large scale integrated circuits) production was successful because of a NASA decision to use them for guidance of the Apollo spacecraft, and the Air Force's need for an improved Minuteman ICBM guidance computer. Ibid., p. 57. </text>
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<text>11. Some materials used by factories cost millions per kilogram. Medical materials are extremely valuable and in short supply, but save human life. For example, urokinase (dissolves blood clots) cannot be mass produced on earth and costs much. In 1980, a NASA study showed space production of urokinase would reduce the cost from $1200 a dose to about $100. Around 200,000 people a year are killed by blood-clotting disorders. Ibid., p. 47.12. Aggressive government NASA type intervention in other areas has benefited America. From 1925 to 1975, the U.S. budget gave more direct support for technological research in aviation than to any other industry. Aviation is now among America's leading exporters. Ibid., p. 57.</text>
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<text>9. Like the transcontinental railroads that opened the West and the national highway system that propelled the country into an era of rapid mobility, space ventures require investments beyond the capacity of the private sector. Already NASA has spent more than $200 billion (in 1985 dollars), much of it to create the infrastructure needed to exploit space. Ibid., p. 45.10. The first industry in space is already mature: satellite communications. It generates some $3 billion a year from the transmission of television and radio broadcasts, telephone conversations, electronic mail, and business data. Ibid., p. 46.</text>
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<text>7. Because of the Russian wheat deal of 1972 which sold wheat to Russia at a low price, driving up prices in the U.S., Landsat data is now used by the Agricultural Department to monitor the Russian and world crop supplies to prevent a similar problem. Ibid., p. 46.8. Landsat data is sensitive enough to gage crop-destroying frosts, which is estimated to save Florida citrus growers $35 million year by telling them exactly when to turn on their burners in groves. Ibid., p. 46.</text>
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<text> 6. We can produce rare medicines (in space) with the potential of saving thousands of lives and hundreds of millions of dollars; we can manufacture superchips that improve our competitive position in the world computer market; we can build space observatories enabling scientists to see out to the edge of the universe; and we can produce special alloys and biological materials that benefit greatly from a zero-gravity environment. (quote from President Reagan, speech, July 84) David Osborne, "Business in Space," THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY, May 1985, p. 45.</text>
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<text>4. The Russians have built a space station and a shuttle. We need another date goal, like the one Kennedy gave...the competition is catching up to us, the Japanese and the Europeans...(the Russians) are working with four times NASA's budget. Ibid., p. 227.5. They've (the Russians) got about two hundred kids between the ages of ten and sixteen living full-time in a cosmonaut city. Boys and girls, training to live up there. Kids who are fifteen years old understand physics on a senior college level. And this country? Ibid., p. 227.</text>
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<text>3. On August 4, 1969, right after the lunar landing, (Von Braun) presented a full-fledged manned Mars-landing concept to the President's Space Task Group (as part) of an integrated space program (which included) a Space Shuttle, a space station, a lunar base with mineral-refining facilities, and a Mars flight to be launched from the space station. He was laughed at, and told to go home and forget it. (It was) discarded by just about everybody except the Russians, who had made his integrated program the cornerstone of their own space effort. Ibid., p. 221. And now the Russians have a space station, a shuttle, and near term plans for the moon and Mars. </text>
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<text>1. In 1980, America spent more money playing Space Invaders than it spent on the Space Shuttle. Pellegrino and Stoff, CHARIOTS FOR APOLLO, 1985, p. 218.2. In 1972, the year of the last Apollo flights to the moon, the space budget was $4.5 billion, and the amount of money in the soil bank was $7.2 billion; that's money the government was giving farmers not to grow crops. Completely thrown away. Ibid., p. 218. </text>
